fair trade 도서관 search result

Fair trade for all : how trade can promote development
간략정보
서명: Fair trade for all : how trade can promote development저자: Stiglitz, Joseph E출판사: Oxford University Press발행년: 2005소장처: 중앙도서관[서고], 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
Fair trade and harmonization: prerequisites for free trade?
간략정보
서명: Fair trade and harmonization: prerequisites for free trade?저자: Bhagwati, Jagdish N출판사: MIT Press발행년: 1996소장처: 중앙도서관[서고], 중앙도서관[국제대학원]
The handbook of organic and fair trade food marketing
간략정보
서명: The handbook of organic and fair trade food marketing저자: Wright, Simon출판사: Blackwell Pub.발행년: 2007소장처: 보건과학도서관[단행본실]
Confronting the coffee crisis : Nicaraguan farmers use of cooperative, fair trade and agroecological networks to negotiate livelihoods and sustainability
간략정보
서명: Confronting the coffee crisis : Nicaraguan farmers use of cooperative, fair trade and agroecological networks to negotiate livelihoods and sustainability저자: Bacon, Christopher M출판사: ProQuest/UMI발행년: 2006소장처: 중앙도서관[서고]
The role of the competition agency in regulatory reform : proceedings of a workshop by the OECD and the Fair Trade Commission of Japan
간략정보
서명: The role of the competition agency in regulatory reform : proceedings of a workshop by the OECD and the Fair Trade Commission of Japan저자: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development출판사: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development발행년: 1997소장처: 학술정보관(CDL)[국제기구자료실(OECD)]
The fair trade fraud
간략정보
서명: The fair trade fraud저자: Bovard, James출판사: St. Martin's Press발행년: 1991소장처: 중앙도서관[국제대학원]
(A) study on the effects of the law on price stabilization and fair trade
간략정보
서명: (A) study on the effects of the law on price stabilization and fair trade저자: 장주영출판사: 고려대학교발행년: 1976소장처: 서창학술정보원[학위논문실], 학술정보관(CDL)[국제기구자료실(학위논문)]
Price control under fair trade legislation
간략정보
서명: Price control under fair trade legislation저자: Grether, Ewald Theophilus출판사: Oxford University Press발행년: 1939소장처: 중앙도서관[서고]
Our floundering fair trade : an inquiry and case study / [1st ed.]
간략정보
서명: Our floundering fair trade : an inquiry and case study / [1st ed.]저자: Harms, John출판사: Exposition Press발행년: 1956소장처: 학술정보관(CDL)[국제기구자료실(보존서고)]
High Tech to High Minded Capitalist John Sage raises funds to benefit children by selling fair-trade gourmet coffee
간략정보
서명: High Tech to High Minded Capitalist John Sage raises funds to benefit children by selling fair-trade gourmet coffee저자: 출판사: US NEWS AND WORLD REPORT발행년: 2007소장처:
국제박람회 디렉토리 1999/2000
간략정보
서명: 국제박람회 디렉토리 1999/2000저자: 대한무역투자진흥공사출판사: 대한무역투자진흥공사발행년: 1998소장처: 서창학술정보원[사회과학실], 서창학술정보원[과학기술실]
모두에게 공정한 무역
간략정보
서명: 모두에게 공정한 무역저자: Stiglitz, Joseph E출판사: 지식의숲발행년: 2007소장처: 중앙도서관[사회과학실], 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
Rekindling the movement: labor's quest for relevance in the twenty-first century
간략정보
서명: Rekindling the movement: labor's quest for relevance in the twenty-first century저자: Turner, Lowell출판사: ILR Press발행년: 2001소장처: 중앙도서관[서고]
(인간의 얼굴을 한 시장경제,)공정무역
간략정보
서명: (인간의 얼굴을 한 시장경제,)공정무역저자: Litvinoff, Miles출판사: 모티브book발행년: 2007소장처: 중앙도서관[사회과학실], 과학도서관[단행본실], 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
공정거래법상 경제력집중 규제 연구
간략정보
서명: 공정거래법상 경제력집중 규제 연구저자: 김두진출판사: 한국법제연구원발행년: 2006소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
公正去來法
간략정보
서명: 公正去來法저자: 박수영출판사: 학우발행년: 2002소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
공정거래법상 끼워팔기에 대한 규제제도 연구
간략정보
서명: 공정거래법상 끼워팔기에 대한 규제제도 연구저자: 김두진출판사: 한국법제연구원발행년: 2001소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
희망을 거래한다: 가난한 사람들의 무역회사 막스 하벌라르
간략정보
서명: 희망을 거래한다: 가난한 사람들의 무역회사 막스 하벌라르저자: Hoff, Frans van der출판사: 서해문집발행년: 2004소장처: 중앙도서관[사회과학실], 과학도서관[단행본실]
미국 통상정책의 기만성
간략정보
서명: 미국 통상정책의 기만성저자: Bovard, James출판사: 比峰出版社발행년: 1993소장처: 중앙도서관[사회과학실], 과학도서관[단행본실], 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
公正去來 槪說
간략정보
서명: 公正去來 槪說저자: 김기태출판사: 韓國經濟新聞社발행년: 1986소장처: 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
Good faith in the jurisprudence of the WTO : the protection of legitimate expectations, good faith interpretation, and fair dispute settlement
간략정보
서명: Good faith in the jurisprudence of the WTO : the protection of legitimate expectations, good faith interpretation, and fair dispute settlement저자: Panizzon, Marion출판사: Hart : Schultsess발행년: 2006소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
PROSOMA: CD/DVD-ROM virtual trade fair. [electronic resource] : Version 7
간략정보
서명: PROSOMA: CD/DVD-ROM virtual trade fair. [electronic resource] : Version 7저자: European Commission. Information Society DG출판사: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities발행년: 2000소장처: 학술정보관(CDL)[국제기구자료실(EU)]
A guide for retail advertising and selling : a guide to fair practice standards and definitions for retail advertising and selling...including references to Federal Trade Commission rulings and other
간략정보
서명: A guide for retail advertising and selling : a guide to fair practice standards and definitions for retail advertising and selling...including references to Federal Trade Commission rulings and other저자: Association of Better Business Bureaus출판사: [Association of Better Business Bureaus]발행년: 1956소장처: 학술정보관(CDL)[국제기구자료실(보존서고)]
NANOMATERIALS AT ACHEMA Trade fair highlights progress in nano-particle production technology
간략정보
서명: NANOMATERIALS AT ACHEMA Trade fair highlights progress in nano-particle production technology저자: 출판사: CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS발행년: 2006소장처:
HOLTFRERICH. Frankfurt as a Financial Centre: From Medieval Trade Fair to European Financial Centre
간략정보
서명: HOLTFRERICH. Frankfurt as a Financial Centre: From Medieval Trade Fair to European Financial Centre저자: Rosenthal, J.-L.출판사: JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC HISTORY발행년: 2000소장처:
Hours of Work and the Fair Labor Standards Act: A Study of Retail and Wholesale Trade, 1938-1950
간략정보
서명: Hours of Work and the Fair Labor Standards Act: A Study of Retail and Wholesale Trade, 1938-1950저자: Costa, D. L.출판사: INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS REVIEW발행년: 2000소장처:
GATT AND THE FAIR WAGE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE LABOR-TRADE LINK
간략정보
서명: GATT AND THE FAIR WAGE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE LABOR-TRADE LINK저자: Alben, E.출판사: COLUMBIA LAW REVIEW발행년: 2001소장처:
LAND OF OPPORTUNITY. Local Chinese officials vie for foreign investors at annual trade fair
간략정보
서명: LAND OF OPPORTUNITY. Local Chinese officials vie for foreign investors at annual trade fair저자: 출판사: CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING NEWS발행년: 2001소장처:
European fair trading law : the unfair commercial practices directive
간략정보
서명: European fair trading law : the unfair commercial practices directive저자: Howells, Geraint G출판사: Ashgate Pub. Company발행년: 2006소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
The law of consumer protection and fair trading / 6th ed
간략정보
서명: The law of consumer protection and fair trading / 6th ed저자: Harvey, Brian W출판사: Butterworths발행년: 2000소장처: 중앙도서관[법학도서관]
공정한 무역, 가능한 일인가？
간략정보
서명: 공정한 무역, 가능한 일인가？저자: Ransom, David출판사: 이후발행년: 2007소장처: 중앙도서관[사회과학실], 서창학술정보원[사회과학실]
Explicit and Implicit Determinants of Fair-Trade Buying Behavior
간략정보
서명: Explicit and Implicit Determinants of Fair-Trade Buying Behavior저자: Vantomme, D.; Geuens, M.; DeHouwer, J.; DePelsmacker, P.출판사: ADVANCES IN CONSUMER RESEARCH발행년: 2006소장처:
Sacred and Profane Consumption Revisited: The Case of Fair Trade Consumers
간략정보
서명: Sacred and Profane Consumption Revisited: The Case of Fair Trade Consumers저자: Gould, N.출판사: ADVANCES IN CONSUMER RESEARCH발행년: 2006소장처:
Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Swing: marketing fair trade apparel
간략정보
서명: Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Swing: marketing fair trade apparel저자: Littrell, M. A.; Ma, Y. J.; Halepete, J.출판사: JOURNAL OF FASHION MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT발행년: 2005소장처:
Has the medium (roast) become the message?: The ethics of marketing fair trade in the mainstream
간략정보
서명: Has the medium (roast) become the message?: The ethics of marketing fair trade in the mainstream저자: Low, W.; Davenport, E.출판사: INTERNATIONAL MARKETING REVIEW발행년: 2005소장처:
Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Swing: marketing fair trade apparel
간략정보
서명: Generation X, Baby Boomers, and Swing: marketing fair trade apparel저자: Littrell, M. A.; Ma, Y. J.; Halepete, J.출판사: JOURNAL OF FASHION MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT발행년: 2005소장처:
Has the medium (roast) become the message?: The ethics of marketing fair trade in the mainstream
간략정보
서명: Has the medium (roast) become the message?: The ethics of marketing fair trade in the mainstream저자: Low, W.; Davenport, E.출판사: INTERNATIONAL MARKETING REVIEW발행년: 2005소장처:
Fair Trade and Eastern Caribbean Banana Farmers: Rhetoric and Reality in the Anti-Globalization Movement
간략정보
서명: Fair Trade and Eastern Caribbean Banana Farmers: Rhetoric and Reality in the Anti-Globalization Movement저자: Moberg, M.출판사: HUMAN ORGANIZATION발행년: 2005소장처:
Retaliation, Bargaining, and the Pursuit of "Free and Fair" Trade
간략정보
서명: Retaliation, Bargaining, and the Pursuit of "Free and Fair" Trade저자: Gawande, K.; Hansen, W. L.출판사: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION발행년: 1999소장처:
KOREA'S NEW CHAEBOL-BUSTERS The Korea Fair Trade Commission has been entrusted with creating a level playing field for business, but this has put it on a collision course with the conglomerates and th
간략정보
서명: KOREA'S NEW CHAEBOL-BUSTERS The Korea Fair Trade Commission has been entrusted with creating a level playing field for business, but this has put it on a collision course with the conglomerates and th저자: 출판사: FAR EASTERN ECONOMIC REVIEW발행년: 2003소장처:
World trade : toward fair and free trade in the twenty-first century
간략정보
서명: World trade : toward fair and free trade in the twenty-first century저자: Griesgraber, Jo Marie출판사: Pluto Press, with발행년: 1997소장처: 중앙도서관[서고]

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Fair trade debate

Fair trade debate
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Fair trade's increasing popularity has drawn criticism from both ends of the political spectrum. Different arguments are used by those who favour and by those who oppose fair trade, or feel that more strict standards and higher fair trade prices are needed. These arguments can be divided into five broad categories:

• The price distortion argument, advocated by the Adam Smith Institute,[1] and The Economist magazine[2] calling fair trade a "misguided attempt to make up for market failures" encouraging market inefficiencies and overproduction.[3]
• The creation of insider/outsider markets argument, defended by the Institute of Economic Affairs[4]. This argument does not explicitly criticize the ideals behind fair trade, but rather current certification, production and pricing systems.
• The trade justice argument, championed by French author and broadcaster Jean-Pierre Boris[5] criticizing fair trade for stopping short of actively advocating immediate trade policy changes that would have a larger impact on disadvantaged producers' lives.
• The mainstreaming argument, defended by French author Christian Jacquiau, which criticizes segments of the fair trade movement for working within the current system (i.e. partnerships with mass retailers, multinational corporations etc.) rather than establishing a new fairer, fully autonomous trading system.

Follow the link below for more...

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_trade_debate

On the efficiency of fair trade

On the efficiency of fair trade
Author: Mark Hayes a
Affiliation:
a Durham Business School, University of Durham, UK
DOI: 10.1080/00346760601024419
Publication Frequency: 4 issues per year
Published in: Review of Social Economy, Volume 64, Issue 4 December 2006 , pages 447 - 468
Subject: Economics;
Formats available: HTML (English) : PDF (English)
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Abstract
This paper uses competitive equilibrium theory to analyze the economic efficiency of international "fair trade" between ethical consumers and low-income producers. The main analytical innovations are the reconsideration of the labor supply decision in a state of Keynesian involuntary unemployment as a choice between work and, not leisure, but inferior production activities; and the application of Pigou and Robinson's theory of employer monopsony, leading to a focus on the "local fair trade organization", which has a similar effect to a labor union or minimum wage in eliminating monopsony rents. A price premium is found neither necessary nor sufficient for fair trade, and in a state of involuntary unemployment a premium does not lead to inefficient allocation. The conclusion is that fair trade improves welfare by strengthening competition for labor, and should be encouraged as a complementary element of an enlightened trade liberalization policy.
Keywords: fair trade; efficiency; involuntary unemployment; monopsony
view references (25) : view citations

The Fair Trade Movement: Parameters, Issues and Future Research

The Fair Trade Movement: Parameters, Issues and Future Research

Journal	Journal of Business Ethics
Publisher	Springer Netherlands
ISSN	0167-4544 (Print) 1573-0697 (Online)
Issue	Volume 53, Numbers 1-2 / August, 2004
DOI	10.1023/B:BUSI.0000039400.57827.c3
Pages	73-86
Subject Collection	Humanities, Social Sciences and Law
SpringerLink Date	Wednesday, December 15, 2004

Geoff Moore

Abstract

Although Fair Trade has been in existence for more than 40 years, discussion in the business and business ethics literature of this unique trading and campaigning movement between Southern producers and Northern buyers and consumers has been limited. This paper seeks to redress this deficit by providing a description of the characteristics of Fair Trade, including definitional issues, market size and segmentation and the key organizations. It discusses Fair Trade from Southern producer and Northern trader and consumer perspectives and highlights the key issues that currently face the Fair Trade movement. It then identifies an initial research agenda to be followed up in subsequent papers.

Fair Trade - North-South - empowerment

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Geoff Moore Email: geoff.moore@unn.ac.uk

References

Bird, K. and D. Hughes: 1997, Ethical Consumerism: The Case of Fairly-Traded Coffee, Business Ethics: A European Review 6(3), 159–167.

Boda, Z.: 2001, Conflicting Principles of Fair Trade, Business Ethics Papers No. 3, (Business Ethics Center, Budapest University of Economic Sciences).

Cafedirect: 2003, www.cafedirect.co.uk, 21/8/03.

Co-op: 2000, Who are the Ethical Consumers?, Cooperative Bank/MORI survey.

Davies, I. and A. Crane: 2003, Ethical Decision Making in Fair Trade Companies, Journal of Business Ethics 45, 79–92.

EFTA: 2001, Fair Trade in Europe 2001, (EFTA, Maastricht).

European Commission: 1999, Communication from the Commission to the Council on Fair Trade, Brussels, 29.11.1999, COM(1999) 619 final.

Fair Trade Federation: 2002, 2002 Report on Fair Trade Trends in the U.S. and Canada, (Fair Trade Federation, Washington).

FINE: 2001, http://www.eftafairtrade.org/definition.asp, 8/9/03.

FLO: 2003, http://www.fairtrade.net, 5/8/03.

Friedmann, H.: 1993, After Midas's feast: Alternative Food Regimes for the future, in P. Allen, (ed.), Food for the Future, (John Wiley & Sons, New York), pp. 213–233.

Howse, R. and M. Trebilcock: 1996, The Fair Trade–Free Trade Debate: Trade, Labour, and the Environment, International Review of Law and Economics 16, 61–79.

Hudson, I. and M. Hudson: 2003, How Alternative is Alternative Trade? Alternative Trade coffee in the Chiapas Region of Mexico, Draft Working Paper, University of Manitoba, Canada.

IFAT: 2003, http://www.ifat.org, 5/8/03.

John, J.: 2001, Fair Trade and Standard Setting. A Labour Rights Perspective, Working USA 5(1), 64–69.

Johnson, P. and C. Sugden, (eds.): 2001, Markets, Fair Trade and the Kingdom of God (Regnum Books International, Oxford)

Kocken, M.: 2002, The Impact of Fair Trade. A Summary of Studies on the Impact of Fair Trade (EFTA).

Leclair, M.: 2002, Fighting the tide: Alternative Trade Organizations in the Era of Global Free Trade, World Development 30(6), 949–958.

Littrell, M. and M. Dickson: 1998, Fair Trade Performance in a Competitive Environment, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 16(4), 176–189.

Littrell, M. and M. Dickson: 1999, Social Responsibility in the Global Market. Fair Trade of Cultural Products (Sage Publications Inc., California).

Maseland, R. and A. De Vaal: 2002, How Fair is Fair Trade?, De Economist 150, 251–272.

Murray, D. and L. Raynolds: 2000, Alternative Trade in Bananas: Obstacles and Opportunities for Progressive Social Change in the Global Economy, Agriculture and Human Values 17, 65–74.

Nicholls, A. J.: 2002, Strategic Options in Fair Trade Retailing, International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management 30(1), 6–17.

Oxford Policy Management: 2000, Fair Trade: Overview, Impact, Challenges. Study to inform [UK Government's] Department for International Development's (DFID) support to Fair Trade, http:// www.opml.co.uk.

Page, S.: 2003, Towards a Global Programme on Market Access: Opportunities and Options International Fund for Agricultural Development (Overseas Development Institute, London).

Raynolds, L.: 2000, Re-embedding Global Agriculture: The International Organic and Fair Trade Movements, Agriculture and Human Values 17, 297–309.

Raynolds, L.: 2002, Consumer/Producer Links in Fair Trade Coffee Networks, Sociologia Ruralis 42(4), 404–422.

Redfern, A. and P. Snedker: 2002, Creating Market Opportunities for Small Enterprises: Experiences of the Fair Trade Movement (ILO, Geneva).

Regnier, P.: 2001, Supplément sur le Commerce équitable (Le Soir, Brussels, Belgium), May 5–6, p. 34.

Renard, M.-C.: 2003, Fair Trade: Quality, Market and Conventions, Journal of Rural Studies 19, 87–96.

Strong, C.: 1997, The Problem of Translating Fair Trade Principles into Consumer Purchase Behaviour Marketing Intelligence and Planning 15(1), 32–37.

Sugden, C.: 1999, Fair Trade as Christian Mission (Grove Booklets Ltd., Cambridge).

Tallontire, A.: 2000, Partnerships in Fair Trade: Reflections from a Case Study of Cafedirect, Development in Practice 10(2), 166–177.

Tiffin, P.: 2002, A Chocolate-coated Case for Alternative International Business, Development in Practice 12(3/4), 383–397.

Traidcraft: 2002a, Annual Review 2002 (Traidcraft, Gateshead).

Traidcraft: 2002b, Traidcraft's strategy 2002–2005. A Summary (Traidcraft, Gateshead).

Watson, L.: 2001, Barriers to the Growth of the Craftbased FairTrade Sector, Paper Presented at the IFAT 2001 Conference.

Fighting the Tide: Alternative Trade Organizations in the Era of Global Free Trade

Fighting the Tide: Alternative Trade Organizations in the Era of Global Free Trade
World Development, Volume 30, Issue 6, June 2002, Pages 949-958
Mark S. LeClair

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00017-7

Abstract

This paper explores the proliferation of Fair Trade organizations, their products, services and client groups in order to establish the impact of this movement. Although small in volume, alternative trade represents a unique response to the relentless pursuit of free trade through the GATT/WTO process. The economic underpinnings of both Fair Trade and subsidy programs in general (such as the EU's Stabilization of Exchange system) are evaluated. Ultimately, alternative trade can provide significant assistance to targeted groups within developing countries, including gains in production and export proficiency. On the negative side, Fair Trade is likely to prolong the dependence of developing countries on products with poor future prospects.

Analysing fair trade in economic terms

Analysing fair trade in economic terms
Journal of Socio-Economics, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 5 December 2007
Stefan Mann

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2007.11.002

Abstract

We identify the fair trade network as the generation of a market where special social, relation-related product attributes play a dominant role. The analysis shows that price-competitiveness with respect to these social product attributes would increase both efficiency and fairness of the network. In addition, it may be appropriate for governments to issue import restrictions based on social criteria similar to fair trade standards.

Governing the coffee chain: The role of voluntary regulatory Systems

Governing the coffee chain: The role of voluntary regulatory Systems
World Development, Volume 33, Issue 12, December 2005, Pages 2029-2044
Roldan Muradian and Wim Pelupessy

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.06.007

Abstract

Summary

The coffee crisis has coincided with the emergence of a number of voluntary regulatory systems in the global coffee chain. The present article explores the advantages and limitations of such schemes, their impact on the chain’s governance, and their implications for farmers’ upgrading. We conclude that participation in these systems does not ensure a better economic performance, but it may facilitate coordination between roasters/traders and some growers, which may lead to upgrading opportunities. The paper also explores some possible options for deriving rents from improved coordination along the coffee chain.

Neoliberalism and the Problem of Space: Competing Rationalities of Governance in Fair Trade and Mainstream Agri-Environmental Networks

Neoliberalism and the Problem of Space: Competing Rationalities of Governance in Fair Trade and Mainstream Agri-Environmental Networks
Research in Rural Sociology and Development, Volume 12, 2006, Pages 95-117
Stewart Lockie and Michael Goodman

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1057-1922(06)12005-3

Abstract

Neoliberal political ideologies have been criticised for their blanket prescription of market reform as the solution to almost any social or environmental problem. This chapter thus examines the ability of market-based solutions to deal with the spatial and social diversity that characterises environmental problems in agriculture. In doing so, the chapter draws on case studies of the international fair trade movement and the regionalisation of natural resource management measures in Australia. Both these cases accept the neoliberal view that social and ecological degradation arises from the failure of markets to reflect the full cost of production, and seek, therefore, to achieve social and environmental objectives through the parallel pursuit of economic rationality. In Australia, voluntary planning and educational activities coordinated at a range of scales from the very local to the water catchment, encourage compliance with locally developed management plans and codes of practice that link the expression of private property rights with a ‘duty of care’ to the environment. In the process, landholders are re-defined as prudent and self-reliant businesspeople for whom sustainable resource management is an essential component of financial viability. Fair trade, by contrast, seeks to transfer social and environmental ‘duties of care’ through the entire fair-trade commodity chain. Auditing, certification and the payment of farm-gate price premiums enable Western consumers to become ‘partners’ in the economic and social development of small and marginalised farming communities; guaranteeing that the ‘fair price’ paid for commodities is reflected in the incomes and, importantly, expenditures of the people receiving them. Despite their differences, these cases are allied in their opposition to protectionist trade policies, their commitment to building the viability of farms as productive business units through exposure to ‘the market’, and their appeals to self-responsibility, empowerment and democratisation. And, ultimately, both fail, by themselves, to deal adequately with the spatial and social diversity that underlies agri-environmental processes and problems. Neither approach, it is suggested, should be abandoned. However, complementary processes of fair trade and bioregional planning are required if either are to achieve their maximum impact.

Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Can Fair Trade, Organic, and Specialty Coffees Reduce Small-Scale Farmer Vulnerability in Northern Nicaragua?

Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Can Fair Trade, Organic, and Specialty Coffees Reduce Small-Scale Farmer Vulnerability in Northern Nicaragua?
World Development, Volume 33, Issue 3, March 2005, Pages 497-511
Christopher Bacon

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.10.002

Abstract

Summary

This paper links changing global coffee markets to opportunities and vulnerabilities for sustaining small-scale farmer livelihoods in northern Nicaragua. Changing governance structures, corporate concentration, oversupply, interchangeable commodity grade beans, and low farm gate prices characterize the crisis in conventional coffee markets. In contrast, certified Fair Trade and organic are two alternative forms of specialty coffee trade and production that may offer opportunities for small-scale producers. A research team surveyed 228 farmers to measure the impact of sales on organic and Fair Trade markets. The results suggest that participation in organic and Fair Trade networks reduces farmers’ livelihood vulnerability.

In the Market But Not of It: Fair Trade Coffee and Forest Stewardship Council Certification as Market-Based Social Change

In the Market But Not of It: Fair Trade Coffee and Forest Stewardship Council Certification as Market-Based Social Change
World Development, Volume 33, Issue 1, January 2005, Pages 129-147
Peter Leigh Taylor

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.07.007

Abstract

Summary

This paper discusses two well-known market-based social change initiatives, Fair Trade coffee and Forest Stewardship Council certification, which harness market forces to pursue social and environmental objectives. A serious challenge for both is to operate in the conventional market without undermining their original objectives. A global commodity chain analysis approach is combined with insights from economic sociology embeddedness theory to explore the social, cultural and organizational factors shaping the initiatives’ governance structures. Both initiatives are seen to move along opposite organizational trajectories, but face similar pressures from conventional market logics, practices and dominant actors. A preliminary framework is proposed for comparative assessment, focusing on distribution of benefits, how conventional market institutions may be questioned, and how internal governance manages diverse stakeholder interests and influence.

Quality certification, regulation and power in fair trade

Quality certification, regulation and power in fair trade
Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 21, Issue 4, October 2005, Pages 419-431
Marie-Christine Renard

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2005.09.002

Abstract

This article examines governance changes and shifting power relations within the fair-labelling network. These shifts are framed analytically by reference to broader changes in the agrofoods sector tied to the increasingly key role played by quality relations and standards in the production and marketing of food. The author argues that evident trends such as a growing complexity of fair-labelling markets, the centralization of its regulating bodies, and the normalization of certification processes have altered power relations to the detriment of small producers. In addition, and at the same time, this ‘fair’ market niche has become more desirable to dominant market actors leading to a combination of factors that has triggered a broad debate within fair trade with respect to the definition and mission of the fair-trade network.

Fair trade: quality, market and conventions

Fair trade: quality, market and conventions
Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 19, Issue 1, January 2003, Pages 87-96
Marie-Christine Renard

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0743-0167(02)00051-7

Abstract

This article analyses Fair Trade, its evolution and the challenges it faces, in the light of the convention theory and its application to the ambit of agro-food.

The article reviews the different meanings and models of what has come to be called Fair Trade, since its beginning as alternative trade, considered as the prototype of a “civic coordination”, to its insertion into the large distribution channels through the labeling strategy, that is, when it is reinforced by “market coordination”. It discusses the possibility of Fair Trade being re-absorbed by the market logic and captured by the dominant actors of the food system who, attracted by its success, have already adopted strategies to win the promising niche market for themselves, while producers preoccupied with the struggle for survival and looking for the possibility of increasing sales volumes, require to move beyond the limits of marginal distribution circuits and to enter the market full steam.

To counter this risk, one key element in strengthening Fair Trade is to empower the label as a base for network legitimacy and a product of social interaction. This means to reinforce the civic coordination by public authority through the state recognition and the institutionalization of their symbol. On the other hand, it is important not to lose sight of the social interactions on which Fair Trade was built and of the importance of mobilizing them, since those who control the mechanisms of this social interaction have the power to impose their legitimate vision of the quality. In this sense, the article integrates the issue of power largely forgotten in the studies on quality.

Fair Trade [wikipedia]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_trade

Fair trade

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For other uses, see Fair trade (disambiguation).

Certified Fair trade quinoa producers in Ecuador

Fair trade is an organized social movement and market-based model of international trade which promotes the payment of a fair price as well as social and environmental standards in areas related to the production of a wide variety of goods. The movement focuses in particular on exports from developing countries to developed countries, most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, sugar, tea, bananas, honey, cotton, wine, fresh fruit, and so on.

Fair trade's strategic intent is to deliberately work with marginalised producers and workers in order to help them move from a position of vulnerability to security and economic self-sufficiency. It also aims at empowering them to become stakeholders in their own organizations and actively play a wider role in the global arena to achieve greater equity in international trade.

Fair trade proponents include a wide array of international religious, development aid, social and environmental organizations such as Oxfam, Amnesty International, and Caritas International.

Like most developmental efforts, fair trade has proven itself controversial and has drawn criticism from both ends of the political spectrum. Some economists and conservative think tanks see fair trade as a type of subsidy that impedes growth. Segments of the left criticize fair trade for not adequately challenging the current trading system.

In 2006, Fairtrade certified sales amounted to approximately $2.3 billion worldwide, a 41% year-to-year increase.^[1] While this represents less than one hundredth of a percentage point of world trade in physical merchandise,^[2] fair trade products generally account for 0.5-5% of all sales in their product categories in Europe and North America.^[3] In October 2006, over 1.5 million disadvantaged producers worldwide were directly benefiting from fair trade while an additional 5 million benefited from fair trade funded infrastructure and community development projects.^[4]

Contents [hide] 1 Definition of fair trade 2 Key fair trade principles 3 General structure of the movement 4 History 4.1 Solidarity trade 4.2 Handcrafts vs. agricultural goods 4.3 Rise of labelling initiatives 4.4 Fair trade today 5 Fairtrade Labelling Organizations (FLO) product certification 6 IFAT Fair Trade Organization membership 7 Fair trade impact studies 8 Fair trade and politics 8.1 Dutch politics 8.2 European politics 8.3 French politics 8.4 British politics 8.5 Italian politics 8.6 Belgian politics 9 Common justifications for fair trade 9.1 Free trade and market failures 9.2 The commodity crisis 10 Criticism 10.1 Price distortion argument 10.2 Mainstreaming argument 11 References 12 See also

[edit] Definition of fair trade

The most widely recognized^{[citation needed]} definition of fair trade was created by FINE, an informal Association of the four main fair trade networks (Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International, International Fair Trade Association, Network of European Worldshops and European Fair Trade Association):^[5]

Fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, which seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers - especially in the South. Fair trade organizations (backed by consumers) are engaged actively in supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in the rules and practice of conventional international trade.

[edit] Key fair trade principles

Workers sorting and pulping coffee beans at a fair trade cooperative in Guatemala

Fair trade advocates generally support the following principles and practices in trading relationships:^[6]

Creating opportunities for economically disadvantaged producers-

Fair trade is a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Its purpose is to create opportunities for producers who have been economically disadvantaged or marginalized by the conventional trading system.

Transparency and accountability-

Fair trade involves transparent management and commercial relations to deal fairly and respectfully with trading partners.

Capacity building-

Fair trade is a means to develop producers’ independence. Fair trade relationships provide continuity, during which producers and their marketing organizations can improve their management skills and their access to new markets.

Payment of a fair price-

A fair price in the regional or local context is one that has been agreed through dialogue and participation. It covers not only the costs of production but enables production which is socially just and environmentally sound. It provides fair pay to the producers and takes into account the principle of equal pay for equal work by women and men. Fairtraders ensure prompt payment to their partners and, whenever possible, help producers with access to pre-harvest or pre-production financing.

Gender equality-

Fair trade means that the work of women and men is properly valued and rewarded. Each person is always paid for their contribution to the production process and are empowered in their organizations, regardless of gender.

Working conditions-

Fair trade means a safe and healthy working environment for producers. The participation of children (if any) does not adversely affect their well-being, security, educational requirements and need for play and conforms to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child as well as the law and norms in the local context.

Environmental protection-

Fair trade actively encourages better environmental practices and the application of responsible methods of production.

[edit] General structure of the movement

Most fair trade import organizations are members or certified by one or several national or international federations. These federations coordinate, promote and facilitate the work of fair trade organizations. The following are the largest and most influential:

• The Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (FLO), created in 1997, is an association of 3 producer networks and 20 national labelling initiatives that promote and market the Fairtrade Certification Mark in their countries. The FLO labelling system is the largest and most widely recognized standard setting and certification body for labelled Fairtrade. It regularly inspects and certifies producer organizations in more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, encompassing approximately one million families of farmers and workers.

• The International Fair Trade Association (IFTA) is a global association created in 1989 of fairtrade producer cooperatives and associations, export marketing companies, importers, retailers, national and regional fair trade networks and fair trade support organizations. In 2004 IFAT launched the FTO Mark which identifies registered Fair Trade Organizations (as opposed to the FLO system, which labels products). IFAT has nearly 300 member organizations in over 60 countries.

• The Network of European Worldshops (NEWS), created in 1994, is the umbrella network of 15 national Worldshop associations in 13 different countries all over Europe.

• The European Fair Trade Association (EFTA), created in 1990, is a network of European fair trade organisations which import products from some 400 economically disadvantaged producer groups in Africa, Asia and Latin America. EFTA's goal is to promote fair trade and to make fair trade importing more efficient and effective. The organization also published yearly various publications on the evolution of the fair trade market. EFTA currently has eleven members in nine different countries.

In 1998, these four federations created together FINE, an informal association whose goal is to harmonize fair trade standards and guidelines, increase the quality and efficiency of fair trade monitoring systems and advocate fair trade politically.

• The Fair Trade Federation (FTF) is an association of Canadian and American fair trade wholesalers, importers and retailers. The organization links its members to fair trade producer groups while acting as a clearinghouse for information on fair trade and providing resources and networking opportunities to its members.

Student groups have also been increasingly active in the past years promoting fair trade products both on their campuses and their communities. Although hundreds of independent student organizations are active worldwide, most groups in North America are either affiliated with United Students for Fair Trade (USA) or the Canadian Student Fair Trade Network (Canada).

[edit] History

Main article: History of fair trade

The first attempts to commercialize fair trade goods in Northern markets were initiated in the 1940s and 1950s by religious groups and various politically oriented non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Ten Thousand Villages, an NGO within the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC) and SERRV International were the first, in 1946 and 1949 respectively, to develop fair trade supply chains in developing countries.^[7] The products, almost exclusively handicrafts ranging from jute goods to cross-stitch work, were mostly sold in churches or fairs. The goods themselves had often no other function than to indicate that a donation had been made.^[8]

[edit] Solidarity trade

Fair Trade goods sold in Worldshops

The current fair trade movement was shaped in Europe in the 1960s. Fair trade during that period was often seen as a political gesture against neo-imperialism: radical student movements began targeting multinational corporations and concerns that traditional business models were fundamentally flawed started to emerge. The slogan at the time, “Trade not Aid”, gained international recognition in 1968 when it was adopted by the UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) to put the emphasis on the establishment of fair trade relations with the developing world.^[9]

The year 1965 saw the creation of the first Alternative Trading Organization (ATO): that year, British NGO Oxfam launched "Helping-by-Selling", a program which sold imported handicrafts in Oxfam stores in the UK and from mail-order catalogues.^[10]

In 1969, the first Worldshop opened its doors in the Netherlands. The initiative aimed at bringing the principles of fair trade to the retail sector by selling almost exclusively goods produced under fair trade terms in “underdeveloped regions”. The first shop was run by volunteers and was so successful that dozens of similar shops soon went into business in the Benelux countries, Germany and in other Western European countries.

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, important segments of the fair trade movement worked to find markets for products from countries that were excluded from the mainstream trading channels for political reasons. Thousands of volunteers sold coffee from Angola and Nicaragua in Worldshops, in the back of churches, from their homes and from stands in public places, using the products as a vehicle to deliver their message: give disadvantaged producers in developing countries a fair chance on the world’s market, and you support their self-determined sustainable development. The alternative trade movement blossomed, if not in sales, then at least in terms of dozens of ATOs being established on both sides of the Atlantic, of scores of Worldshops being set up, and of well-organized actions and campaigns attacking exploitation and foreign domination, and promoting the ideals of Nelson Mandela, Julius Nyerere and the Nicaraguan Sandinistas: the right to independence and self-determination, to equitable access to the world’s markets and consumers.

[edit] Handcrafts vs. agricultural goods

In the early 1980s, Alternative Trading Organizations faced a major challenge: the novelty of some fair trade products started wearing off, demand reached a plateau and some handicrafts began to look “tired and old fashioned” in the marketplace.^[11]The decline of segments of the handicrafts market forced fair trade supporters to rethink their business model and their goals. Moreover, fair trade supporters during this period became increasingly worried by the impact of the fall of agricultural commodity prices on poor producers. Many then believed it was the movement's responsibility to address the issue and to find innovative remedies to react to the ongoing crisis in the industry.

In the subsequent years, fair trade agricultural commodities played an important role in the growth of many ATOs: successful on the market, they offered a much-needed, renewable source of income for producers and provided Alternative Trading Organizations a perfect complement to the handicrafts market. The first fair trade agricultural products were tea and coffee, quickly followed by dried fruits, cocoa, sugar, fruit juices, rice, spices and nuts. While in 1992, a sales value ratio of 80 % handcrafts to 20 % agricultural goods was the norm, in 2002 handcrafts amounted to 25.4 % of fair trade sales while commodity food lines were up at 69.4 %.^[12]

[edit] Rise of labelling initiatives

Early Fairtrade Certifications Marks

Sales of fair trade products however only really took off with the arrival of the first Fairtrade labelling initiatives. Although buoyed by ever growing sales, fair trade had been generally contained to relatively small Worldshops scattered across Europe and to a lesser extent, North America. Some felt that these shops were too disconnected from the rhythm and the lifestyle of contemporary developed societies. The inconvenience of going to them to buy only a product or two was too high even for the most dedicated customers. The only way to increase sale opportunities was to start offering fair trade products where consumers normally shop, in large distribution channels.^[13] The problem was to find a way to expand distribution without compromising consumer trust in fair trade products and in their origins.

A solution was found in 1988, when the first Fairtrade labelling initiative, Stichting Max Havelaar, was created under the initiative of Nico Roozen, Frans Van Der Hoff and Dutch development NGO Solidaridad. The independent certification allowed the goods to be sold outside the Worldshops and into the mainstream, reaching a larger consumer segment and boosting fair trade sales significantly. The labeling initiative also allowed customers and distributors alike to track the origin of the goods to confirm that the products were really benefiting the producers at the end of the supply chain.^[14]

The concept caught on: in the ensuing years, similar non-profit Fairtrade labelling organizations were set up in other European countries and North America. In 1997, a process of convergence among labelling organizations – or “LIs” (for “Labelling Initiatives”) – led to the creation of Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International. FLO is an umbrella organization whose mission is to set the Fairtrade standards, support, inspect and certify disadvantaged producers and harmonize the Fairtrade message across the movement.

In 2002, FLO launched for the first time an International Fairtrade Certification Mark. The goals of the launch were to improve the visibility of the Mark on supermarket shelves, facilitate cross border trade and simplify procedures for both producers and importers. At present, the certification mark is used in over 50 countries and on dozens of different products, based on FLO’s certification for coffee, tea, rice, bananas, mangoes, cocoa, cotton, sugar, honey, fruit juices, nuts, fresh fruit, quinoa, herbs and spices, wine and footballs etc.

[edit] Fair trade today

Global fair trade sales have soared over the past decade. The increase has been particularly spectacular among Fairtrade labelled goods: in 2006, these sales amounted to approximately $2.3 billion worldwide, a 41 % year-to-year increase.^[15] As per December 2006, 569 producer organizations in 58 developing countries were FLO-CERT Fairtrade certified and over 150 were IFAT registered..^[16][17]

[edit] Fairtrade Labelling Organizations (FLO) product certification

International Fairtrade Certification Mark

Fair Trade Certified Mark (USA & Canada)

IFAT Fair Trade Organization Mark

Main article: Fairtrade certification

Note: Customary spelling of Fairtrade is one word when referring to the FLO product labelling system

Fairtrade labelling (usually simply Fairtrade or Fair Trade Certified in the US) is a certification system designed to allow consumers to identify goods which meet agreed standards. Overseen by a standard-setting body (FLO International) and a certification body (FLO-CERT), the system involves independent auditing of producers and traders to ensure the agreed standards are met.

For a product to carry either the International Fairtrade Certification Mark or the Fair Trade Certified Mark, it must come from FLO-CERT inspected and certified producer organizations. The crops must be grown and harvested in accordance with the international Fairtrade standards set by FLO International. The supply chain must also have been monitored by FLO-CERT, to ensure the integrity of labelled products.

Fairtrade certification guarantees not only fair prices, but also the principles of ethical purchasing. These principles include adherence to ILO agreements such as those banning child and slave labour, guaranteeing a safe workplace and the right to unionise, adherence to the United Nations charter of human rights, a fair price that covers the cost of production and facilitates social development, and protection and conservation of the environment. The Fairtrade certification system also promotes long-term business relationships between buyers and sellers, crop prefinancing and greater transparency throughout the supply chain and more.

The Fairtrade certification system covers a growing range of products, including bananas, honey, coffee, oranges, cocoa, cotton, dried and fresh fruits and vegetables, juices, nuts and oil seeds, quinoa, rice, spices, sugar, tea and wine. Companies offering products that meet the Fairtrade standards may apply for licences to use one of the Fairtrade Certification Marks for those products.

The International Fairtrade Certification Mark was launched in 2002 by FLO, and replaced twelve Marks used by various Fairtrade labelling initiatives. The new Certification Mark is currently used worldwide (with the exception of Canada and the United States).

The Fair Trade Certified Mark, used in Canada and in the United States, also still identifies Fairtrade goods in both countries. Full transition to the new Mark should become reality in the future as it gradually replaces the old Certification Marks in both countries.

[edit] IFAT Fair Trade Organization membership

In an effort to complement the Fairtrade product certification system and allow most notably handcraft producers to also sell their products outside worldshops, the International Fair Trade Association (IFAT) launched in 2004 a new Mark to identify fair trade organizations (as opposed to products in the case of FLO International and Fairtrade). Called the FTO Mark, it allows consumers to recognize registered Fair Trade Organizations worldwide and guarantees that standards are being implemented regarding working conditions, wages, child labour and the environment.

The FTO Mark gave for the first time all Fair Trade Organizations (including handcrafts producers) definable recognition amongst consumers, existing and new business partners, governments and donors.

[edit] Fair trade impact studies

Several independent studies have recently measured the impact of fair trade on disadvantaged farmers and workers.

In 2002, Loraine Ronchi of the Poverty Research Unit at the University of Sussex studied the impact of fair trade on the Coocafe cooperative in Costa Rica. Ronchi found that fair trade strengthened producer organizations and concluded that "in light of the coffee crisis of the early 1990s, fair trade can be said to have accomplished its goal of improving the returns to small producers and positively affecting their quality of life and the health of the organisations that represent them locally, nationally and beyond".^[18]

In 2003, the Fair Trade Research Group at Colorado State University conducted seven case studies of Latin American Fairtrade coffee producers (UCIRI, CEPCO, Majomut, Las Colinas & El Sincuyo La Selva, Tzotzilotic and La Voz) and concluded that Fair Trade has "in a short time greatly improved the well-being of small-scale coffee farmers and their families"^[19] The various case studies most notably found that producers had under Fair Trade greater access to credit and external development funding.^[20] The studies also found that Fair Trade producers had, compared to conventional coffee producers, greater access to training and enhanced ability to improve the quality of their coffee.^[21]. Families of Fair Trade producers were also said to be more stable and children had better access to education than in families growing conventional coffee.^[22]

A case study of Bolivian coffee Fair Trade producers published by Nicolas Eberhart for French NGO Agronomes et Vétérinaires sans frontières in 2005 concluded that Fair Trade certification has had in the Yungas a positive impact on local coffee prices, thus economically benefiting all coffee producers (Fairtrade certified or not). Fair Trade was also said to have strengthened producer organizations and increased their political influence.^[23]

A comparative case study conducted with small-scale coffee farmer cooperatives selling into both conventional and certified organic / Fair Trade markets in northern Nicaragua demonstrated that sales to Fair Trade can reduce small-scale farmers' livelihood vulnerability when coffee commodity prices were low (Bacon, 2005). Changing governance structures, corporate concentration, oversupply, interchangeable commodity grade beans, and low farm gate prices characterized the crisis in conventional coffee markets. In contrast, certified Fair Trade and organic are two types of specialty coffee trade and production that are potentially useful for wider sustainable community development processes. A participatory action research team surveyed 228 farmers to measure the impact of sales to organic and Fair Trade markets. The results suggest that participation in organic and Fair Trade networks reduces farmers’ livelihood vulnerability and can contribute to bottom-up empowerment processes. However, significant challenges remain in efforts to increase positive impacts and maintain fair trade's core values as Fair Trade enters the mainstream. ^[24]

An econometric analysis conducted by Becchetti and Costantino (2006) verified the impact of Fair Trade affiliation on monetary and non monetary measures of well-being on a sample of Kenyan farmers. The researchers compared a control sample group of farmers to Fair trade certified groups and Meru herbs farmers. Becchetti and Costantino documented the following: during the same period, Fair trade farmers were more successful in diversifying their production, experienced a significant drop in child mortality, improvements in terms of monthly household food consumption, greater satisfaction in terms of prices obtained for their crop, living conditions etc. Methodological problems such as the relative contribution of Fair Trade and Meru herbs farmers, control sample bias, Fair trade and Meru Herb selection biases are discussed and addressed showing that ex ante selection of Meru members contributes to explain some but not all the results of the study. ^[25]

A sociological research published by Virginie Diaz Pedregal (2006) analyzes practices of exchange and the effects of « fair division » in coffee organizations using fair trade in the Andean context (Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia). The study deals with the way beneficiaries perceive fair trade, and its importance within the communities. Positive and negative effects of fair trade are discussed. ^[26]

Michigan State University assistant professor Daniel Jaffee conducted a four year study of the impact of fair trade on Michiza cooperative coffee producers, in Oaxaca, Mexico. Jaffee's findings, published in the 2007 book "Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival", provide a nuanced view of fair trade: "Fair trade's higher prices increase gross household income - although, because most fair trade coffee is also certified organic, producers have higher costs of production as well. Participation in fair trade reduces households' debt and enhances their economic options, affording them the possibility of better feeding and educating their children. Fair trade affords peasant farmers partial protection from some of the worst aspects of commodity crises and in many cases allows them the breathing room needed to engage in more sustainable agricultural practices. Furthermore, the extra capital from fair trade can generate important economic ripple effects within communities, providing additional employment even for nonparticipating families. However, fair trade is not a panacea, and it does not bring the majority of participants out of poverty. (...) Demand for fair trade products must increase dramatically in order to augment the economic benefits for such small farmer families and allow the system to include many more producers of coffee and other commodities around the world."^[27]

[edit] Fair trade and politics

[edit] Dutch politics

The Dutch province of Groningen was sued in 2007 by coffee supplier Douwe Egberts for explicitly requiring its coffee suppliers to meet fair trade criteria, most notably the payment of a minimum price and a development premium to producer cooperatives. Douwe Egberts, which sells a number of coffee brands under self-developed ethical criteria, believed the requirements were discriminatory. After several months of discussions and legal challenges, the province of Groningen prevailed in a well-publicized judgment. Coen de Ruiter, director of the Max Havelaar Foundation, called the victory a landmark event: "it provides governmental institutions the freedom in their purchasing policy to require suppliers to provide coffee that bears the fair trade criteria, so that a substantial and meaningful contribution is made in the fight against poverty through the daily cup of coffee".^[28]

[edit] European politics

Display of Fairtrade products at the Derbyshire County Council head office

As early as 1994, the European Commission prepared the “Memo on alternative trade” in which it declared its support for strengthening Fair Trade in the South and North and its intention to establish an EC Working Group on Fair Trade. Furthermore, the same year, the European Parliament adopted the “Resolution on promoting fairness and solidarity in North South trade” (OJ C 44, 14.2.1994), a resolution voicing its support for fair trade.

In 1996, the Economic and Social Committee adopted an “Opinion on the European “Fair Trade” marking movement”. A year later, in 1997, the document was followed by a resolution adopted by the European Parliament, calling on the Commission to support Fair Trade banana operators. The same year, the European Commission published a survey on “Attitudes of EU consumers to Fair Trade bananas”, concluding that Fair Trade bananas would be commercially viable in several EU Member States.^[29]

In 1998, the European Parliament adopted the “Resolution on Fair Trade” (OJ C 226/73, 20.07.1998), which was followed by the Commission in 1999 that adopted the “Communication from the Commission to the Council on “Fair Trade” COM(1999) 619 final, 29.11.1999.

In 2000, public institutions in Europe started purchasing Fairtrade Certified coffee and tea. Furthermore, that year, the Cotonou Agreement made specific reference to the promotion of Fair Trade in article 23 g) and in the Compendium. The European Parliament and Council Directive 2000/36/EC also suggested promoting Fair Trade.^[29]

In 2001 and 2002, several other EU papers explicitly mentioned fair trade, most notably the 2001 Green Paper on Corporate Social Responsibility and the 2002 Communication on Trade and Development.

In 2004, the European Union adopted the “Agricultural Commodity Chains, Dependence and Poverty – A proposal for an EU Action Plan”, with a specific reference to the Fair Trade movement which has “been setting the trend for a more socio-economically responsible trade.” (COM(2004)0089).

In 2005, in the European Commission communication “Policy Coherence for Development – Accelerating progress towards attaining the Millennium Development Goals”, (COM(2005) 134 final, 12.04.2005), Fair Trade is mentioned as “a tool for poverty reduction and sustainable development”.^[29]

And finally, on July 6, 2006, the European Parliament unanimously adopted a resolution on Fair Trade, recognizing the benefits achieved by the Fair Trade movement, suggesting the development of an EU-wide policy on Fair Trade, defining criteria that need to be fulfilled under Fair Trade to protect it from abuse and calling for greater support to Fair Trade (EP resolution “Fair Trade and development”, 6 July 2006)

"This resolution responds to the impressive growth of Fair Trade, showing the increasing interest of European consumers in responsible purchasing," said Green MEP Frithjof Schmidt during the plenary debate. Peter Mandelson, EU Commissioner for External Trade, responded that the resolution will be well-received at the Commission. "Fair Trade makes the consumers think and therefore it is even more valuable. We need to develop a coherent policy framework and this resolution will help us."^[30]

[edit] French politics

In 2005, French parliament member Antoine Herth issued the report “40 proposals to sustain the development of Fair Trade”. The report was followed the same year by a law, proposing to establish a Commission to recognize Fair Trade Organisations (article 60 of law no. 2005-882, Small and Medium Enterprises, 2 August 2005).^[31]

In parallel to the legislative developments, also in 2006, the French chapter of ISO (AFNOR) adopted a reference document on Fair Trade after five years of discussion.

[edit] British politics

In 2007, both Scottish and Welsh governments were actively attempting to become the "world's first fair trade country". In Wales, the campaign to make Wales the world’s first Fair Trade country was launched in 2004 by the National Assembly for Wales.^[32] In Scotland, First Minister Jack McConnell pledged that Scotland would become a "Fair Trade Nation" in 2006.^[33]

In June 2007, a parliamentary committee published the report Fair Trade and Development, criticising the government for "failing to adequately support fair trade despite having said it wanted to help poor countries trade their way out of poverty". The MPs, led by Malcolm Bruce, said the Department for International Development "had not kept pace with growing support for fair trade among the public and retailers".

The committee report examined several ethical trading schemes and concluded that fair trade was "gold standard in terms of trading relations with producers". It called for greater support both domestically and internationally of fair trade organisations and recommended making a senior official responsible for fair trade within the government. The report also suggested to commission research on the feasibility of a labelling scheme which will force all retailers to show how much they paid farmers and workers in the developing world for each particular product.^[34]

[edit] Italian politics

In 2006, Italian lawmakers started debating how to introduce a law on fair trade in Parliament. A consultation process involving a wide range of stakeholders was launched early October.^[35] A common definition of fair trade was most notably developed. However, its adoption is still pending as the efforts were stalled by the 2008 Italian political crisis.

[edit] Belgian politics

Belgian lawmakers discussed as early as 2006 a possible legislation on fair trade. In January 2008, lawmakers proposed possible definitions and three proposals were debated. A consensus on a common definition, however, has not yet been reached.^[36]

[edit] Common justifications for fair trade

Fairtrade Certified Rice Producer in Thailand

Implicit and often explicit in fair trade is a criticism of the current organization of international trade as being "unfair". Fair trade advocates argue in favor of the need for fair trade by mentioning the purported microeconomic market failures of the current system and an alleged commodity crisis and its impact on developing country producers.

[edit] Free trade and market failures

All FINE members and fair trade federations support in theory the principles of unhindered free trade. However, as Alex Nicholls, social entrepreneurship professor at Oxford University, states, the "key conditions on which classical and neo-liberal trade theories are based are notably absent in rural agricultural societies in many developing countries."^[37] Perfect market information, perfect access to markets and credit, and the ability to switch production techniques and outputs in response to market information are fundamental assumptions which "are fallacious in the context of agricultural producers and workers in developing countries".^[37]

According to Fair trade proponents, the absence of these microeconomic conditions can nullify or even reverse the potential gains to producers from trade. While Nicholls agrees that the win-win situation for all actors involved may be broadly correct in some markets, nevertheless, "within developing countries market conditions are not such that producers can unambiguously be declared to be better off through trade."^[37] The existence of these market failures lessens the capacity trade has to lift developing countries out of poverty.

Fair trade is seen as an attempt to address these proported market failures by providing producers a stable price for their crop, business support, access to premium Northern markets and better general trading conditions.

[edit] The commodity crisis

Fair trade advocates also often point out that unregulated competition in global commodity markets ever since the 1970s and 1980s has encouraged a price "race to the bottom". During the 1970-2000 period, prices for many of the main agricultural exports of developing countries, such as sugar, cotton, cocoa and coffee, fell by 30 to 60 percent.^[38] According to the European Commission, “the abandonment of international intervention policies at the end of the 1980s and the commodity market reforms of the 1990s in the developing countries left the commodity sectors, and in particular small producers, largely to themselves in their struggle with the demands of the markets”. Today, “producers… live an unpredictable existence because the prices for a wide range of commodities are very volatile and in addition follow a declining long-term trend”.^[39] The total loss for developing countries due to falling commodity prices has been estimated by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) to total almost $250 billion during the 1980-2002 period.^[29]

Millions of poor farmers are dependent on commodities and on the price they receive for their harvest. In about 50 developing countries, three or fewer primary commodity exports constitute the bulk of export revenue.

Many farmers, often without other means of subsistence, are obliged to produce more and more, no matter how low the prices are. Research has shown that those who suffer most from declines in commodity prices are the rural poor — i.e. the majority of people living in developing countries. Basic agriculture employs over 50% of the people in developing countries, and accounts for 33% of their GDP.^[40]

Fair trade supporters believe current market prices do not properly reflect the true costs associated with production; they believe only a well-managed stable minimum price system can cover environmental and social production costs.

[edit] Criticism

Main article: Fair trade debate

Fair trade's increasing popularity has drawn criticism from both ends of the political spectrum. Different arguments are used by those who favour and by those who oppose fair trade, or feel that more strict standards and higher fair trade prices are needed. These arguments can be divided into four broad categories:

• The price distortion argument, advocated by the Adam Smith Institute^[41] and The Economist magazine^[42] calling fair trade a "misguided attempt to make up for market failures" encouraging market inefficiencies and overproduction.^[43]
• The creation of insider/outsider markets argument, defended by the Institute of Economic Affairs.^[44] This argument does not explicitly criticize the ideals behind fair trade, but rather current certification, production and pricing systems.
• The trade justice argument, championed by French author and broadcaster Jean-Pierre Boris^[45] criticizing fair trade for stopping short of actively advocating immediate trade policy changes that would have a larger impact on disadvantaged producers' lives.
• The mainstreaming argument, defended by French author Christian Jacquiau, which criticizes the largest part of the fair trade movement for working within the current system (i.e. partnerships with mass retailers, multinational corporations etc.) rather than establishing a fairer and fully autonomous trading system.

[edit] Price distortion argument

Effects of a Price Floor

Similar to other farm subsidies, fair trade attempts to set a price floor for a good that is in many cases above the market price and therefore encourages existing producers to produce more and new producers to enter the market, leading to excess supply. Through the laws of supply and demand, excess supply can lead to lower prices in the non-Fair Trade market.

In 2003, Cato Institute's vice president for research Brink Lindsey referred to fair trade as a “well intentioned, interventionist scheme...doomed to end in failure." Fair trade, according to Lindsey, is a misguided attempt to make up for market failures in which one flawed pricing structure is replaced with another.^[46]Lindsey's comments echo the main criticisms of Fair Trade, claiming that it "leads fair trade producers to increase production." While benefiting a number of Fair Trade producers over the short run, fair trade critics worry about the impact on long run development and economic growth. The reason coffee prices are so low on the world markets is that there is too much production.^[42] By encouraging even more supply of coffee, fair trade makes the world price fall further.^[42] This makes the vast majority of coffee producers worse off.

Several academics, including Hayes^[47], Becchetti and Rosati^[48], identify two counterarguments to this reasoning.

1. First, in many cases the exchange between producers and intermediaries does not occur in a competitive framework.^[48] In such case the market price is a distortion because it does not reflect the productivity of producers but their lower market power.^[49]
2. Second, the food industry produces highly differentiated products with a continuous wave of innovations that create new varieties. There is not one single coffee but instead many different coffee products that are differentiated from one another in terms of quality, blends, packaging, and now also "social responsibility" features. For each of these products there exists a specific and different market price that is determined by consumer taste for that kind of product (which for fair trade coffees does not seem to be weak or declining).^[48] In this sense, fair trade is an innovation in the food industry that creates a new range of products.^[48]

Beyond these elements, it is important to also take into account all the potential benefits of the fair trade value chain in terms of provision of local public goods, technical assistance that strengthens producers' market capabilities, democratization of markets through increasing consumer power, etc.^[48]

Fair trade organizations such as FLO International also respond to the oversupply argument by claiming that fair trade is very much a market-responsive model of trade: the farmers receive the Fairtrade minimum prices and premiums only if they have a buyer willing to pay them, and many producer groups also sell in the conventional market. According to Luuk Zonneveld, Managing Director at FLO International, "our experience is that producers use their additional income from Fairtrade to improve their homes, send their children to school and improve the quality of their existing crop, rather than to increase production."^[50] Fair trade organizations have also long encouraged producers to invest in diversification and specialty crop development programs. Examples include coffee growers developing citrus or macadamia nuts, banana farmers moving into other premium tropical produce, or investment in alternative income-generation projects such as eco-tourism, or in community health and education programs.^[51]

[edit] Mainstreaming argument

On the other end of the spectrum, some believe a large part of the fair trade system is not radical enough. French author Christian Jacquiau, in his book Les coulisses du commerce équitable, calls for stricter fair trade standards and criticizes a segment of the fair trade movement, especially the French labelling organization Max Havelaar France, for working within the current system (i.e. partnerships with mass retailers, multinational corporations etc.) rather than establishing a new fairer, fully autonomous trading system. Jacquiau is also a staunch supporter of significantly higher fair trade prices in order to maximize the impact, as most producers only sell a portion of their crop under fair trade terms. He defends in his book a minority of fair trade networks (such as Minga or Artisans du monde in France) that he believes have higher ethical value^[52].

[edit] References

1. ^ Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (2007). www.fairtrade.net. URL accessed on May 24, 2007.
2. ^ [1] p. 3, The World Trade Organisation publishes annual figures on the world trade of goods and services.
3. ^ FINE. (2005) Fair Trade in Europe 2005: Facts and Figures on Fair Trade in 25 European countries. Brussels: Fair Trade Advocacy Office
4. ^ Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (2006). Fairtrade FAQs URL accessed on December 14, 2006.
5. ^ European Fair Trade Association. (2006). Definition of Fair Trade URL accessed on August 2, 2006.
6. ^ International Fair Trade Association (2007). The 10 Standards of Fair Trade URL accessed on 15 November 2007.
7. ^ International Fair Trade Association. (2005).Crafts and Food. URL accessed on August 2, 2006.
8. ^ Hockerts, K. (2005). The Fair Trade Story. p1
9. ^ International Fair Trade Association. (2005). Where did it all begin? URL accessed on August 2, 2006.
10. ^ Fair trade history (Scott, Roy)
11. ^ Redfern A. & Snedker P. (2002) Creating Market Opportunities for Small Enterprises: Experiences of the Fair Trade Movement. International Labor Office. p6
12. ^ Nicholls, A. & Opal, C. (2004). Fair Trade: Market-Driven Ethical Consumption. London: Sage Publications.
13. ^ Renard, M.-C., (2003). Fair Trade: quality, market and conventions. Journal of Rural Studies, 19, 87-96.
14. ^ Redfern A. & Snedker P. (2002) Creating Market Opportunities for Small Enterprises: Experiences of the Fair Trade Movement. International Labor Office. p7
15. ^ Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (2007). www.fairtrade.net. URL accessed on May 24, 2007.
16. ^ Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (2007). www.fairtrade.net. URL accessed on May 24, 2007.
17. ^ IFAT. (2006) The FTO Mark. URL accessed on October 30, 2006.
18. ^ Ronchi, L. (2002). The Impact of Fair Trade on Producers and their Organizations: A Case Study with Coocafe in Costa Rica. University of Sussex. p25-26.
19. ^ Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America. Colorado State University, p28
20. ^ Taylor, Pete Leigh (2002). Poverty Alleviation Through Participation in Fair Trade Coffee Networks, Colorado State University, p18.
21. ^ Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America. Colorado State University, p8
22. ^ Murray D., Raynolds L. & Taylor P. (2003). One Cup at a time: Poverty Alleviation and Fair Trade coffee in Latin America. Colorado State University, p10-11
23. ^ Eberhart, N. (2005). Synthèse de l'étude d'impact du commerce équitable sur les organisations et familles paysannes et leurs territoires dans la filière café des Yungas de Bolivie. Agronomes et Vétérinaires sans frontières, p29.
24. ^ Bacon, C. 2005. Confronting the Coffee Crisis: Can Fair Trade, Organic, and Specialty Coffees Reduce Small-Scale Farmer Vulnerability in Northern Nicaragua? World Development Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 497–511
25. ^ L. Becchetti,, M. Costantino (2006). Fair Trade on marginalised producers: an impact analysis on Kenyan farmers, working paper CEIS 220 and working paper ECINEQ2006
26. ^ Diaz Pedregal, Virginie (2006). Commerce équitable et organisations de producteurs. Le cas des caféiculteurs au Pérou, en Equateur et en Bolivie. Paris, L'Harmattan
27. ^ Jaffee, Daniel (2007). Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability and Survival. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24959-2
28. ^ Max Havelaar Foundation (2007). [85.82.218.199/fileadmin/Bruger_filer/Dokument_database/IKAvaerktoej/EU_siden/Max_Havalaar.pdf Dutch Province of Groningen wins summary brought by Doug Egberts and can continue specifying fair trade coffee]
29. ^ ^{a b c d} FINE (2006). Business Unusual. Brussels: Fair Trade Advocacy Office
30. ^ Frithjof Schmidt MEP (2006). Parliament in support of Fair Trade URL accessed on August 2, 2006.
31. ^ FINE (2006). Business Unusual. Brussels: Fair Trade Advocacy Office
32. ^ Fair Trade Wales (2007) Fair Trade Wales URL accessed on June 24, 2007.
33. ^ Scottish Executive (2007). Scotland set to become Fair Trade nation URL accessed on June 24, 2007.
34. ^ International Development Committee (June, 2007) Fair Trade and Development URL accessed on June 24, 2007.
35. ^ Nembri, Antonietta (October 4, 2006) Equo e solidale: un convegno sul futuro normativo. URL accessed on October 28, 2006.
36. ^ RTBF (January 2008) Le commerce équitable veut se doter de lois, http://www.rtbf.be/info/societe/ARTICLE_149630
37. ^ ^{a b c} Nicholls, A. & Opal, C. (2004). Fair Trade: Market-Driven Ethical Consumption. London: Sage Publications. p17-19
38. ^ Agricultural Commodity Chains, Dependence and Poverty. A proposal for an EU Action Plan. European Commission, 2004.
39. ^ Agricultural Commodity Chains, Dependence and Poverty. A proposal for an EU Action Plan. European Commission, 2004.
40. ^ UNCTAD Press Release, “UNCTAD Calls For Policy Changes to Avoid Throwing World Economy Into Recession,” 25 August 1998.
41. ^ Singleton, A: "The poverty of fair trade.", Adam Smith Institute, 2005
42. ^ ^{a b c} The Economist. (Dec 7th 2006). Voting with your trolley URL accessed on 31 December 2006.
43. ^ Brink, Lindsey. (2004). Grounds for Complaint: Understanding the "Coffee Crisis". URL accessed on August 8, 2007.
44. ^ Booth, P. and L. Whetstone (2007). [2]. Also to be published in Economic Affairs, Volume 27, No. 2, June 2007.
45. ^ Boris, Jean-Pierre (2005). Commerce inéquitable: Le roman noir des matières premières. Paris: Hachette Littératures.
46. ^ Brink, Lindsey. (2004). Grounds for Complaint: Understanding the "Coffee Crisis". URL accessed on August 8, 2007.
47. ^ Hayes, M. G. (2006) On the efficiency of Fair Trade, Review of Social Economy, 64 (4), 447-68
48. ^ ^{a b c d e} L.Becchetti F.C. Rosati, 2006, Globalisation and the death of distance in social preferences ad inequity aversion: empirical evidence from a pilot study on fair trade consumers, CEIS Working Paper, n.216 and World Economy (forth.)
49. ^ Hayes, M. G. and Moore, G. A. (2005)The Economics of Fair Trade:a guide in plain English
50. ^ The Economist (January 11, 2007) Letters to the Editor URL accessed on January 12, 2007
51. ^ FLO International. (2006) [tt_news=11&tx_ttnews[backPid]=104&cHash=ccfcb32023 Response to The Economist] URL accessed on January 4, 2007
52. ^ Jacquiau, Christian (2006). Les Coulisses du Commerce Équitable. Éditions Mille et Une Nuits. Paris.

[edit] See also

Fair trade topics	Fair trade | History of fair trade | Fairtrade certification | Fair trade and politics | Fair trade impact studies | Fair trade debate | Alternative trading organization | Trade justice | Trade Justice Movement | Sweatshops | Worldshop
Federations	Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International | International Fair Trade Association | Network of European Worldshops | European Fair Trade Association | FINE | Fair Trade Federation
Certification	FLO International (standard-setting & producer support) | FLO-CERT (inspection & certification) | International Fairtrade Certification Mark | Fair Trade Certified Mark
Campaigns	Fairtrade Town | List of Fairtrade settlements | Fairtrade fortnight | Make Trade Fair | World Fair Trade Day
Resources	Black Gold (film) | One Cup (film)

Fairtrade labelling members

Africa Fairtrade Network | Asociación del Sello de Productos de Comercio Justo | Comercio Justo México | Fair Trade Association of Australia and New Zealand | Fairtrade Österreich | Fairtrade Mark Ireland | The Fairtrade Foundation | Latin American and Caribbean Network of Small Fair Trade Producers | Max Havelaar Belgique | Association Max Havelaar France | Max Havelaar Danmark | Stichting Max Havelaar | Fairtrade Max Havelaar Norge | Max Havelaar-Stiftung Switzerland | Network of Asian Producers | Reilun kaupan edistämisyhdistys | Rättvisemärkt | TransFair Canada | TransFair Deutschland | TransFair Italia | TransFair Japan | TransFair-Minka Luxembourg | TransFair USA

ATOs

AgroFair | Alter Eco | Artisans du Monde | Cafédirect | Claro Fair Trade | Cooperative Coffees | Ctm altromercato | Divine Chocolate | Equal Exchange | Equita | El Puente | EZA Fairer Handel | Fair Trade Original | Gepa The Fair Trade Company | Ideas | Intermon Oxfam | La Siembra | Oxfam-Magasins du monde | Oxfam Trading | Oxfam-Wereldwinkels | SERRV International | Solidar'Monde | Traidcraft | Twin Trading | Ten Thousand Villages | Veja Sneakers

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Fair trade

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